Instructional Design Concepts and Theories
Learning Objectives
By the end of the workshop, participants should be able to:
1. Describe the steps in the instructional design process.
2. List the steps in a needs analysis and discuss the importance of each step.
3. Describe the role of both the instructional designer and the subject matter expert in developing a task analysis.
4. Demonstrate the ability to define their learner population.
5. Clearly differentiate between a goal and an objective and give an example of each.
6. Compare and contrast the four different perspectives on learning environments.
7. Compare and contrast directed and open-ended learning environments
8. Provide and example of when direct and indirect teaching should be utilized.
9. Suggest one benefit of each of the following types of learning activities: problem based learning, simulations, instructional games, and just-in-time teaching.
10. Compare and contrast the purposes of formative and summative evaluations.
1. Describe the steps in the instructional design process.
2. List the steps in a needs analysis and discuss the importance of each step.
3. Describe the role of both the instructional designer and the subject matter expert in developing a task analysis.
4. Demonstrate the ability to define their learner population.
5. Clearly differentiate between a goal and an objective and give an example of each.
6. Compare and contrast the four different perspectives on learning environments.
7. Compare and contrast directed and open-ended learning environments
8. Provide and example of when direct and indirect teaching should be utilized.
9. Suggest one benefit of each of the following types of learning activities: problem based learning, simulations, instructional games, and just-in-time teaching.
10. Compare and contrast the purposes of formative and summative evaluations.
The Instructional Design Process
There are several different instructional design models that have been developed to provide instructional designers with a format to follow when analyzing a situation which will need instruction, developing the relevant content and then evaluating the results of their effort (Brown & Green, 2016). The most popular description of this process is the ADDIE method which is an acronym that divides the process into the following components:
ANALYZE: Dick and Carey (1996) suggest that in addition to analyzing the content that must be taught, the instructional designer should also analyze the learners and the environment in which the learning will take place. This is a movement away from the lecture based or sage-on-a-stage method where the content is presented with little regard for the background or needs of the learner (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2009). Generally during the analysis phase the goals and objectives for the course are developed. The model developed by David Merrill called Pebble-in-a-Pond deviates from this because he suggests developing objectives after the content has been developed since he feels that they will change frequently during the development phase (Brown & Green, 2016). In addition to goals and objectives, learner and environmental requirements, the instructional designer must seek subject matter experts to develop the content, understand the technology requirements and restrictions as well as understanding the background knowledge of the learners and how their learning will be assessed (Brown & Green, 2006).
DESIGN: There are a number of suggested formats on how to design instruction. David Merrill (2002) in his "first principle of instruction" feels that learners must be engaged in solving real world problems, they must rely on previous knowledge learned and construct new knowledge and this new knowledge is applied by the learner and assimilated into their world. The design phase typically starts with the learning objectives, then moves to a flowchart or organizational structure for the content, then storyboarding and finally designing the actual system or user interface (Brown & Green, 2016).
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DEVELOP: During the development phase the instructional designer along with the subject matter expert write the actual content that was specified in the design phase. After the content has been developed there is a period of trouble shooting and seeking feedback.
IMPLEMENT: During the implementation phase the trainers are taught and methods for accessing the content are developed.
EVALUATE: The evaluation phase includes both formative and summative assessments for the learner to verify that they met the learning goals for the course as well as evaluation of course delivery, content and implementation.
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The problem that will be explored and evaluated in this course is how to train new admissions committee members to fairly, quickly and equitably evaluate 3000-4000 applicants in such a way that a holistic approach is taken to maintain the diversity of the class while at the same time achieving a level of consistency that is defensible when questioned by applicants. In addition, a new software system will be utilized during the next admissions cycle and the volunteer admissions committee members need to utilize this software in the pre-admissions screening process.
Needs Analysis
The first step in the design process according to Brown and Green (2016) is to conduct a needs analysis or a systematic look at who is requesting a change, why a change is needed and what variables are involved including technological and environmental. The instructional designer can help determine what change needs to occur. Robert F. Mager suggests that a common approach is to evaluate how the process should be done and how it is currently being done. If there is a discrepancy between the two then instruction is needed (Brown & Green, 2016). In order to develop a comprehensive needs analysis all relevant constituents should be interviewed or surveyed. Another method suggested by Brown and Green (2016) was developed by Allison Rossert (1995) who suggests that the instructional designer should determine the optimal performance of a task, the actual performance of the task, any feeling about the task that may be contributing factors as well as any root causes for suboptimal performance (Brown & Green, 2016).
In this workshop case the desired change that needs to occur is to train new admissions committee members on how to do a systematic, equitable look at evaluating candidates for admission by looking at their application holistically and comparing the applicant metrics to the mission of the school. The need for an updated plan for evaluation as well as an instructional manual was determined after interviewing several members of the admissions committee who felt that with many new committee members there is a need for training on how to utilize a consistent, equitable method for applicant screening. Currently each member of the admissions committee utilizes their interpretation of the mission statement to determine how well each candidate meets the criteria. This seems to work well with a stable experienced committee. No statistical evaluation for consistency has taken place. The plan is to evaluate the admissions committee procedure and performance over the next several months as well an analyze the statistical correlation between various aspects of the application with their committee score. Opinions for root causes of inconsistencies as well as suggestions for improvement will be sought from admissions committee members as well as from administrators and IT professionals who have been involved in the last admissions cycle.
Steps in a needs analysis
Step One: Determining the Desired Change:
Problem List:
1. Each medical school has approximately 4000 applications that need to be screened during the admission process which extends from August through April each year.
2. For the most part the screeners are volunteer faculty who do the screening after hours.
3. Each screener may have a different interpretation of the mission statement and therefore different priorities when determining what makes a good applicant.
4. Diversity in all aspects of the application is important. As an institution of higher learning diversity of culture, experiences, country of origin, socioeconomic factors as well as educational history are all important and valued.
5. There is new software coming out for the next admissions season. The prescreening admissions process will need to be done on this new software.
Problem List:
1. Each medical school has approximately 4000 applications that need to be screened during the admission process which extends from August through April each year.
2. For the most part the screeners are volunteer faculty who do the screening after hours.
3. Each screener may have a different interpretation of the mission statement and therefore different priorities when determining what makes a good applicant.
4. Diversity in all aspects of the application is important. As an institution of higher learning diversity of culture, experiences, country of origin, socioeconomic factors as well as educational history are all important and valued.
5. There is new software coming out for the next admissions season. The prescreening admissions process will need to be done on this new software.
Step Two: The request for the desired change
The request for the desired change is coming from many sources. Many medical schools are looking at various ways to screen applicants. Some are utilizing metrics only, some are using holistic evaluations, some are using candid interviews and some are using mini-multiple interviews.
An informal interview of both the IT and administrative personnel as well as the admissions committee members will take place.
A survey of both IT and administrative personnel as well as the admissions committee will also take place.
The request for the desired change is coming from many sources. Many medical schools are looking at various ways to screen applicants. Some are utilizing metrics only, some are using holistic evaluations, some are using candid interviews and some are using mini-multiple interviews.
An informal interview of both the IT and administrative personnel as well as the admissions committee members will take place.
A survey of both IT and administrative personnel as well as the admissions committee will also take place.
Step Three: Implementation location of the desired change
The desired change will take place in the admissions office.
Step Four: The intervention
A formal observation will take place. The output from each member of the committee is being observed. Data is being collected on each pre-admission screener including: how many people they screen, how they rate them and ultimately how many are chosen to be interviewed. In addition, correlation studies are being done between each individual component of the application and ultimate acceptance decisions in order to determine if there is a correlation and if it is positive or negative.
The purpose of the observation is to collect data to see if there are parts of the application that could use technology to score while still maintaining diversity.
The desired change will take place in the admissions office.
Step Four: The intervention
A formal observation will take place. The output from each member of the committee is being observed. Data is being collected on each pre-admission screener including: how many people they screen, how they rate them and ultimately how many are chosen to be interviewed. In addition, correlation studies are being done between each individual component of the application and ultimate acceptance decisions in order to determine if there is a correlation and if it is positive or negative.
The purpose of the observation is to collect data to see if there are parts of the application that could use technology to score while still maintaining diversity.
Step Five: Evaluating the Success of the needs analysis
As the project continues a formal set of objectives will be developed. A second survey will be done of the admissions committee as well as the IT and administrative personnel to determine how well the scoring rubric meets the needs of the committee. They will look at whether it is aligned to the mission of the school, ease of use, utility and ease of imputing scores in the software system.
As the project continues a formal set of objectives will be developed. A second survey will be done of the admissions committee as well as the IT and administrative personnel to determine how well the scoring rubric meets the needs of the committee. They will look at whether it is aligned to the mission of the school, ease of use, utility and ease of imputing scores in the software system.
Task Analysis
After a needs analysis has been completed and the goals for training are more formalized, the next step is a task analysis which, according to Brown and Green (2016) is the most critical step in the instructional design process. The task analysis is done collaboratively between the instructional designer and the subject matter expert. The task analysis allows both the subject matter expert and the instructional designer the opportunity to break the task down into the smallest components possible, to examine the sequence of the tasks as well as the clarity of instruction for the tasks from a learner's perspective (Morrison et al, 2006). Morrison et al. (2006) emphasize the need to tie together the goals from the needs analysis, the characteristics of the learners from the learner analysis and the content of the task analysis. Brown and Green (2016) says that the final step in the task analysis process is to evaluate the success of the task analysis. They suggest asking a subject matter expert who was not involved in the process to look at the detailed task analysis and see of there are any steps that require further elaboration or clarification.
The task that needs to be analyzed in this workshop is breaking down the steps necessary to screen a medical school application as well as the steps needed for a new committee member to learn how to input the content from the pre-admissions screen of an applicant into the new Webadmit software. Brown and Green (2016) recommend evaluating the task in terms of both scope and sequence and then formalizing it in either outline or flowchart format. After the task analysis is complete, Brown and Green (2016) suggest that specific learning goals be developed for the learners. For this process a committee will be formed consisting of one member of the IT department, one instructional designer and one member of the admissions department who will teach the new committee member how to access and utilize the software. The two tasks that will be analyzed are 1. the steps necessary to access and input the pre-screening review of a candidate into the Webadmit software and 2. the steps necessary to formally look at a medical school application.
Learner Analysis
Brown and Green (2016) state that the next step in the instructional design process is analyzing the learners. As a designer of instructional content it is important to know who your learners are as well as their strengths and weaknesses. No longer is teaching considered a process of imparting knowledge to learners who lack the information. Instead, it is acknowledged that learners have their own skill sets and experiences that they can draw upon to construct knowledge. With this in mind, learners are an active component of the curriculum instead of mere recipients. Anyone who has taught for any length of time will probably agree that each class has its own personality and that this must be taken into account when planning curriculum.
Unlike other information gathered in the instructional design process, the analysis of the learners is a more private document. Brown and Green (2016) suggest starting with analyzing your learners as humans to see if your instruction has a role in fulfilling any basic human needs or wants. Next look at their motivation for participating in the instruction: are they required to attend or are they a willing participant (Brown & Green, 2016). The goal for all instruction should be to be as inclusive as possible. Analyzing learners for special needs as well as deficits in skills is important to make sure that it meets the needs of as many people as possible.
Since the instruction design task in this workshop is to analyze the steps in evaluating a medical school application and how this can be standardized and taught to all learners as well as utilizing the new software to input the data from the pre-admissions screening, The recommendations of Mager (1988, p. 60, as cited by Brown & Green, 2016, p. 78-79) were followed in the learner analysis survey and a discussion of the demographics of the population.
Unlike other information gathered in the instructional design process, the analysis of the learners is a more private document. Brown and Green (2016) suggest starting with analyzing your learners as humans to see if your instruction has a role in fulfilling any basic human needs or wants. Next look at their motivation for participating in the instruction: are they required to attend or are they a willing participant (Brown & Green, 2016). The goal for all instruction should be to be as inclusive as possible. Analyzing learners for special needs as well as deficits in skills is important to make sure that it meets the needs of as many people as possible.
Since the instruction design task in this workshop is to analyze the steps in evaluating a medical school application and how this can be standardized and taught to all learners as well as utilizing the new software to input the data from the pre-admissions screening, The recommendations of Mager (1988, p. 60, as cited by Brown & Green, 2016, p. 78-79) were followed in the learner analysis survey and a discussion of the demographics of the population.
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Dick, Carey and Carey (2011) suggest analyzing:
1. Entry skills 2. Prior knowledge of topic area 3. Attitudes toward content and potential delivery systems 4. Academic motivation 5. Educational and ability levels 6. General learning preferences 7. Attitudes toward training organizations 8. Group characteristics |
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Organization of Content
Goals and Objectives
Goals and objectives, what's the difference and do we need them? Goals determine the intention of the instruction and objectives describe the intended outcome of the instructional activity, according to Brown & Green (2016). However, D. H. Jonassen (1991) contrasts objectivism and constructivism and posits that if instructors shift their philosophy to more of a constructivist view then learning objectives would not be necessary or desired. Constructivists believe that each learner constructs their own knowledge and makes their own mental models based on their experiences. If that is the case then the goals and objectives for each learner would be different. The traditional objectivist position puts the instructor in the role of determining all that is to be learned and how it is to be learned and the learner is merely the receptacle for this learning (Jonassen, 1991). To see the goals and objectives of this project, click here.
Goals: are overarching statements about why you need instruction and what it is supposed to accomplish. A goal describes the change that is expected to occur in the learner whether it is a change in knowledge, skill or attitude (Brown & Green, 2016). Goals need to be formally articulated before any instruction can be developed, according to Brown & Green (2016).
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Objectives: are much more specific and are usually written in a format that clearly defines what the learner is to learn, how the instructor will know that they learned it, the level of achievement they have reached at learning it, and in what time period the learner will complete the learning (Brown & Green, 2016). There are a number of different formats learning objectives can take. According to Mager (1984) a learning objective should include an action, a condition under which this action will occur and a criterion or level of competency that the learner will demonstrate. A well established method for writing effective objectives is utilizing Bloom's taxonomy. All instructors need to focus on the purpose of goals and objectives: to develop effective, organized instruction for learners.
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Organizing Instruction
The next step for the instructional designer is to decide how the instructional content will be organized. According to Brown and Green (2016) the first step is determining the scope and sequence of the content. In other words, you need to determine exactly how much content you intend to cover and in what order you intend to cover it. There are a number of different methods of organization discussed by Brown & Green (2016) and frequently the setting will provide some restrictions. The content could be organized in terms of content which is the concepts, skills or attitudes that you intend for the students to incorporate based on your objectives or in terms of media which is the methods that you will utilize to teach the content (Brown&Green, 2016). It is important to remember that all objectives and therefore content learned should not come from the instructor. The learners, while actively working with the content, will develop their own objectives. Brown and Green (2016) describe Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience (Dale, 1969) as a way of describing the continuum of available learning experiences. They can range from enactic or real world experiences; to iconic or visual or sensory experiences; to symbolic or the use of sounds or symbols that are unrelated to the experience (Brown & Green, 2016). The instructor needs to consider the setting that the instruction will occur in when planning. A classroom setting, programmed instruction,and distance learning each have their own benefits and drawbacks (Brown & Green, 2016).
Learning Environments
Bransford, Brown and Cocking (2013) as cited in Brown and Green (2016) describe four types of learning environments:
Learner centered: this environment focuses on the learner and utilizes their experiences, biases and past knowledge to uncover misconceptions and preconceived ideas and develop new mental models that are more cohesive and consistent with the known science at the time. An example of this would be a group engaged in problem-based learning.
Knowledge centered environments: in this environment the instructional content takes center stage. Activities are designed to teach the content and develop understandings. An example of this would be an instructor teaching on a scientific principle.
Knowledge centered environments: in this environment the instructional content takes center stage. Activities are designed to teach the content and develop understandings. An example of this would be an instructor teaching on a scientific principle.
Assessment environment: the instructional setting is designed to provide the opportunity for continual testing, feedback, and then revision. An example of this would be an online testing session where a student self-tests, gets feedback on their answers and the opportunity to retest.
Community-centered environments: In this environment, not only are learners learning from the perspectives and experiences of other learners, but also extending this knowledge to real world examples of problems. An example of this would be a class on training employees where theories on how best to train are explained first and then companies send in real world case studies for the class to work on.
Teaching Styles
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Directed learning or teaching: In this method the instructor has developed clear learning objectives and goals that will be covered when teaching the content. The focus is on the information, the instructor has the central role, and activities are designed to allow learners to engage with the material and learn the content (Brown & Green, 2016). This type of instruction is typically used in the medical field to teach how to perform a medical procedure. There is only one correct method and attention to detail is important.
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Open-ended learning or teaching; In this method the learners are the focus and they actively work on solving a complex problem. The instructor's role is more supportive. Goals for the instruction may or may not be present, but objectives are not. The objectives are determined by the learners as they work through the content, not the instructors. Open ended learning provides a forum and promotes divergent thought (Brown & Green, 2016). This style of learning is commonly used in medicine to explore a clinical scenario. It is more important to consider the perspectives and conceptions of the group members than to quickly arrive at an answer.
Strategies of teaching
Problem-Based Learning; In problem based learning a group of students are presented with a problem that needs to be solved. They utilize their experiences, biases and past knowledge to develop a list of objectives of content or concepts that need further investigation or understanding. After researching these objectives, the group reconvenes to ty to develop a solution to the problem (Brown & Green, 2016). This method is used in medical schools to examine a clinical scenario, develop a differential diagnosis and then to try to develop a plan of action or plan of care for the patient.
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Simulations and Games: Simulations and games allow a participant to participate in learning a new skill in a realistic environment with little to no risk. It is much easier to learn how to do something if you have the opportunity to practice the skill in an environment that feels authentic (Brown & Green, 2016). In medical education, simulated patients and simulation labs are used to teach medical students and residents how to perform a procedure or learn a new skill in a way that presents little to no risk.
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Instructional Games: Instructional games are utilized as a fun, interactive way of extending knowledge or identifying gaps in knowledge by allowing students the opportunity to compete against themselves or others. Games must be well designed or the focus shifts from the content to be learned to the game itself (Brown & Green, 2016). In medical school, there are many instructional games to teach about the immune system. The immune system is complex with a lot of terminology that would be new to the learner. The opportunity to play an instructional game makes learning less of a drudgery and keeps the learners engaged.
Just-in-time teaching: is a method of using direct instruction in a more open-ended environment. Here the instructor provides mini lectures to teach on complex topics or provide background information (Brown & Green, 2016). After a problem based learning session, just-in-time teaching is used to allow learners to continue working on their problem by providing them with enough background knowledge to keep them from becoming frustrated without giving so much instruction that diversity of thought is stifled.
Evaluating the Course
Evaluating the learner
The next step in the process is to determine how successful the learners are at meeting the objectives for the course. A criterion referenced evaluation assesses the competence levels of the learners at meeting each criteria. A norm-referenced assessment compares learners to their peers instead of evaluating mastery of content. To develop a successful evaluation the instructional designer must make sure that the evaluation fully lines up with and completely evaluates mastery of the objectives. The evaluation can be conducted in a number of ways: a pen and paper test. an evaluation of demonstrating a skill, a performance evaluation, using observation or anecdotal records, reviewing a portfolio, or using a rubric (Brown & Green, 2016). Timing of an evaluation depends on the goal. A formative evaluation will check on progress of the learner and the success of the instructional designer at meeting the objectives. A summative evaluation is given at the end of the instruction to evaluate how successful the process was at helping learners meet the goals and objectives.
In this workshop it will important to access whether the admissions committee members can effectively use WebAdmit to screen applicants for medical school, whether they are familiar with the prerequisites and minimum requirements for a medical student application, whether they can clearly articulate the school's mission and determine attributes that can be used to show alignment between a candidate and the mission of the school, and whether they can determine and then defend reasoning for classifying an applicant at a certain level.
In this workshop it will important to access whether the admissions committee members can effectively use WebAdmit to screen applicants for medical school, whether they are familiar with the prerequisites and minimum requirements for a medical student application, whether they can clearly articulate the school's mission and determine attributes that can be used to show alignment between a candidate and the mission of the school, and whether they can determine and then defend reasoning for classifying an applicant at a certain level.
Evaluating the instructional design process
In addition to evaluating the success of the learners at meeting the objectives, the success of the program or design must be evaluated. A formative evaluation can be used to check progress as well as provides an opportunity to make changes or improvements and a summative evaluation assesses the overall success of the designed instruction at meeting its goal; have the learners meet the objectives. There are many stages of evaluation for an instructional design project. The first is to evaluate the instruction in draft form and make sure that it meets the intent of the subject matter expert as well as the needs of the learners. The next step would be to have a group of learners take a pre-quiz, work through the content and then take a post-quiz to see how successful they were learning the content with or without the instructor. Finally the instructional content is field tested by the instructor (Brown & Green, 2016). A summative assessment is important to evaluate the overall success of the training session or instruction. One well described method is that by Kirkpatrick (1994) which has four levels of evaluation, each level more comprehensive than the previous. Level 1 is to check for reactions or feedback to the training session. Level 2 is to look at what was actually learned by the participants. Level 3 is to check their ability to transfer this information to new scenarios and level 4 is to look at whether the outcomes seen are a direct result of the training.
Click here for an evaluation of the workshop.
Click here for an evaluation of the workshop.
Try the Quizlet flashcards to practice evaluation terms and definitions.
Self-Assessment
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References
Bransford, J., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R. (2003). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C. National Academy Press.
Brown, A., & Green, T. D. (2016). The essentials of instructional design: Connecting fundamental principles with process and practice (3rd edition). New York, NY: Routledge.
Dale, E. (1969). Audio-visual methods in teaching (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Dick, W., Carey, L., (1996). The systematic design of instruction. In D.P. Ely & T Plomp (Eds.), Classic writings on instructional technology. Vol. II, Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J.O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.), Columbus, OH: Allyn & Bacon.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J.O. (2011). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). New York: Pearson.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research & Development, 39(3), 5-14.
Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1994). Evaluating training programs: The four levels. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.
Mager, R. (1984). Goal analysis. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.
Merill, M.D., (2002.) Five principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development. 50 (3), 43-59.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S.M., & Kemp, J. E. (2006). Designing effective instruction (4th ed.). Hobeken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons.
Rossert, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G. Anglin (Ed.) Instructional Technology: Past, present and future (2nd ed.) (pp 183-196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Brown, A., & Green, T. D. (2016). The essentials of instructional design: Connecting fundamental principles with process and practice (3rd edition). New York, NY: Routledge.
Dale, E. (1969). Audio-visual methods in teaching (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Dick, W., Carey, L., (1996). The systematic design of instruction. In D.P. Ely & T Plomp (Eds.), Classic writings on instructional technology. Vol. II, Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J.O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.), Columbus, OH: Allyn & Bacon.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J.O. (2011). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). New York: Pearson.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research & Development, 39(3), 5-14.
Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1994). Evaluating training programs: The four levels. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.
Mager, R. (1984). Goal analysis. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.
Merill, M.D., (2002.) Five principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development. 50 (3), 43-59.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S.M., & Kemp, J. E. (2006). Designing effective instruction (4th ed.). Hobeken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons.
Rossert, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G. Anglin (Ed.) Instructional Technology: Past, present and future (2nd ed.) (pp 183-196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
