MAKING IT STICK
Chapter 5 and 6
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:
1. Write a case scenario demonstrating how suggestion and interference can cause inaccurate reporting of information in a crime scenario. 2. Distinguish between rule learners and example learners. 3. Explain the research that shows that it is not a good idea to try to match teaching style and learning style if you want to get the best results in the classroom. 4. Summarize the direct and indirect effects of retrieving knowledge while studying. 5. Argue why each student should take charge of their own education, but can not best decide what their deficits are. 6. Identify and explain four illusions of knowing. |
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WEEKLY CONTENT SUMMARIES
Chapter 5 Avoid Illusions of Knowing
In Make it Stick, Brown, Roediger and McDaniel (2014) discuss some of the illusions that make leaners think they know something that they do not. They first describe the two ways of knowing from David Kahneman's book Thinking, Fast and Slow. The first, Systems 1, is unconscious, intuitive and immediate. The second, Systems II, is a slower process using conscious analysis and reasoning. Using and relying on System 1 without waiting from System II can result in errors in thinking (Brown et al., 2014).
Metacognition is the process of monitoring your thinking looking for these errors. Judgements made should be based on outside clues and feedback from others, as this is much more accurate than relying exclusively on your own perceptions. As humans we like for everything to make sense so we develop stories to explain what we perceive. These stories may not be based on reality. Memory is based on reconstructions of what we think happened so they can be distorted by suggestion, memory inflation, interference from other events and the illusion that we know things that we do not. An example of this in the classroom- a teacher who is very knowledgeable about a topic will lose touch with the reality of how best to teach the material and how long it would take to learn it. Other students are a much better judge of where there are holes in understanding. This understanding is the basis of Eric Mazur's Peer Instruction (Brown et al., 2014).
Metacognition is the process of monitoring your thinking looking for these errors. Judgements made should be based on outside clues and feedback from others, as this is much more accurate than relying exclusively on your own perceptions. As humans we like for everything to make sense so we develop stories to explain what we perceive. These stories may not be based on reality. Memory is based on reconstructions of what we think happened so they can be distorted by suggestion, memory inflation, interference from other events and the illusion that we know things that we do not. An example of this in the classroom- a teacher who is very knowledgeable about a topic will lose touch with the reality of how best to teach the material and how long it would take to learn it. Other students are a much better judge of where there are holes in understanding. This understanding is the basis of Eric Mazur's Peer Instruction (Brown et al., 2014).
Studies have demonstrated that students who are most unskilled are also the ones who are most unaware of their lack of competence. Since they lack insight into their shortcomings, they have no motivation to improve (Brown et al., 2014).
So how do we best develop mastery? Brown et al. (2014) suggest making mental models. Learn how to put all of the steps in a process together into a cohesive whole. Pay attention to external cues and calibrate your thinking based on this input. Seek feedback and listen to it. Use simulations or the apprentice model to provide rapid feedback and error correction (Brown et al., 2014).
So how do we best develop mastery? Brown et al. (2014) suggest making mental models. Learn how to put all of the steps in a process together into a cohesive whole. Pay attention to external cues and calibrate your thinking based on this input. Seek feedback and listen to it. Use simulations or the apprentice model to provide rapid feedback and error correction (Brown et al., 2014).
Chapter 6 Get Beyond Learning Styles
Brown, Roediger and McDaniel (2014) strive to debunk the long held theory that each of us have preferred learning styles and that in order to best learn, we must be taught new material in that style. This theory is not supported by research and is very limiting. It allows the learner to feel that if they are not taught in the correct way then they will not and can not learn. Instead, Brown et al. (2014) suggest that each person should be in charge of their own learning. They follow the premise that what you think you can learn or do, will end up being what you can learn or do, so you should extend your boundaries instead of limiting them. The only learning difference that the authors feel has any validity as far as limiting abilities is language fluency and reading ability (Brown et al., 2014).
A learning difference that does make a difference is intelligence, but how do you accurately define intelligence? It has typically been defined by measuring a person's logical and verbal abilities. There are two forms of intelligence: fluid intelligence or reasoning ability and crystallized intelligence or the compilation of a lifetime of knowledge. Howard Gardner extends the definition of intelligence to include eight different types: logical-mathematical, spatial, linguistic, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and interpersonal. Robert J. Sternberg defines it as three different types of intelligence: analytical, creative and practical (Brown et al., 2014). According to Brown et al. Gardner's definitions of intelligence have not been supported by research, but Sternberg's have.
Regardless of how you define intelligence, what really matters here is what you do with it. Typical intelligence testing measures abilities or strengths. Brown et al. (2014) suggest that instead we should measure or identify weaknesses, work on those areas and retest. In this way we are measuring progress or gains in ability as opposed to a static measure of strengths (Brown et al., 2014).
Regardless of how you define intelligence, what really matters here is what you do with it. Typical intelligence testing measures abilities or strengths. Brown et al. (2014) suggest that instead we should measure or identify weaknesses, work on those areas and retest. In this way we are measuring progress or gains in ability as opposed to a static measure of strengths (Brown et al., 2014).
Brown et al. conclude with defining two different methods of learning: structure building and rule verses example learning. Those who are high structure builders learn better, build better mental models and exclude extraneous, contradictory information better than low structure builders. Reflecting on what you did right or wrong allows you to make progress in developing better mental models in the future. Rule learners look for underlying principles or rules when making comparisons, whereas, example learners learn many examples and try to compare new information to a currently known example no matter how well it may or may not fit (Brown et al., 2014).
Dr Jeffrey Karpicke: Student Assessment Part 1
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Dr. Jeff Karpicke (2013) presents on the need for retrieval of knowledge for long-term learning. He starts with defining learning and explains two different processes: encoding or bringing knowledge in and retrieval the process of recalling the information. The direct effect of retrieval is that every time you retrieve information you enhance learning. He used his research to demonstrate two key points: 1. that students who reread the material repeatedly thought they learned it well, but consistently overestimated their retention and 2. reading and then repeated retrieval leads to the best results (ffmspt, 2013).
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He tested these findings with both verbatim type questions and conceptual questions. Three methods will help students get the best results in their study time: read the text and then try to retrieve it, concept mapping, and create a clue list as you read and then try to recall the material using your clue list (ffmspt, 2013).
Do Learning Styles Really Exist?
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In this short video, Demystifying Medicine (2014), learning styles are discussed and the theory that being taught in your preferred style of learning is beneficial is disputed. The thought was if you determine your learning style (visual, auditory or kinesthetic) and were taught using that method you would learn best. Students were taught in all three methods and then assessed. The findings: students did not do as well on assessments when being taught in their preferred learning style. The logic is that this makes learning easier and when not as much effort is expended then not as much learning results (Demystifying Medicine, 2014).
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CONNECTIONS TO FIELD AND/OR DISCIPLINE
So many of the illusions of knowledge can be found when you are studying medicine. Students and faculty will readily agree on the concept of the curse of knowledge. After practicing medicine for a long period of time sometimes the diagnosis seems obvious and a practitioner can forget how much effort and practice it took to get to that point. Another would be the false consensus effect. Four to five generations with different perspectives all trying to practice medicine in the same location. The baby boomer generation with their strong work ethic and the millennial generation seeking work-life balance frequently clash on their definitions of a professional and cannot understand why it is not obvious to other generations. In addition, students will frequently complain when classes are taught in an active learning format instead of their preferred learning style suggesting that this puts them at a disadvantage when preparing for the licensing exams.
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Students should be taught these illusions. It will make them much more receptive to better methods to learn. Illusions can be compared with unconscious bias. People frequently deny that they are biased until they start taking some of the unconscious bias tests and they are sometimes really uncomfortable with the results. If students knew more about these illusions of knowledge and could test themselves for them, they might be much more receptive to active learning, desirable difficulties, peer instruction, and moving away from thinking that rereading is best and that they need to be taught in a way that matches their preferred learning style. Students should also understand that they are not the best judges of whether learning has really taken place and that they would be best served by relying on other students and facilitators to help them gauge their progress and deficits.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Now test yourself by attempting to correctly spell the terms that were presented in this unit.
REFERENCES
Brown, P., Roediger III, H., & McDaniel M. (2014). Make it stick; The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA : The Belknap
Press of Harvard University.
ffmspt (2013, May 15). Conference “student assessment” (part 1) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/CioabgMyFlA
Demystifying Medicine (2014, November 18). Do learning styles really exist? [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/bYyVWBJn59g
Press of Harvard University.
ffmspt (2013, May 15). Conference “student assessment” (part 1) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/CioabgMyFlA
Demystifying Medicine (2014, November 18). Do learning styles really exist? [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/bYyVWBJn59g
