MAKING IT STICK
Chapter 7 and 8
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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By the end of the unit, students will be able to:
1. Discuss the genetic and environmental contributions to intelligence. 2. Explain neuroplasticity and its implications for learning. 3. Compare and contrast a fixed and growth mindset. 4. Summarize how desirable difficulties, mnemonic devices and deliberate practice will all contribute to increased learning and retention. 5. Map out a schedule for learning how to do something you have always wanted to learn using deliberate practice, mnemonics and a quizzing schedule. |
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WEEKLY CONTENT SUMMARIES
Chapter 7 Increase Your Abilities
In chapter 7, Brown, Roediger and McDaniel (2014) discuss the plasticity of the brain and how effortful, goal directed learning leads to the greatest success. Plasticity is the ability of the brain to remodel by a process called neurogenesis. This is in contrast to the original teaching that IQ and capacity was predetermined at birth and largely determined by genetics. The structure of the brain consists of gray and white matter. Gray matter is made up of the cell bodies and dendrites of the neurons and white matter is composed of the myelinated axons of the neurons. A connection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another is called a synapse and this is where learning occurs. By the time we reach adulthood, our brain's 100 billion neurons have formed 150 trillion connections. These connections are reinforced by increased myelination and pruning of unused connections throughout our lifetime (Brown, et al. 2014).
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The brain interprets the information provided by the senses and for a long time it was felt that loss of a group of neurons or damage or loss of a sensory modality would result in significant disability. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to remodel itself so that a group of neurons can take over the function of another group of neurons. This was eloquently demonstrated by the work of Paul Bach-y-Rita who showed that the tongue could substitute for another sense by mapping sensory impulses and transmitting it to the brain and then the brain could then learn to interpret these impulses. To better understand this a worldwide project called the Connectome project was undertaken. The goal of this endeavor is to attempt to map all of the connections and pathways of the brain, one cubic centimeter at a time (Brown, et al. 2014).
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Intelligence was felt to be largely due to genetics and to be an inherited characteristic. This can be very limiting because if intelligence is strictly due to genetics and not something that can be modified with effort, then practice and learning are of no benefit. Researchers have demonstrated that children who are taught they are smart are afraid to take risks because they do not want this fact questioned and they do not want to show the effort they must put into something to learn it. The average IQ in the industrialized world has increased by about 15 points. This is due to environmental factors not genetic factors. This clearly provides evidence that intelligence is not strictly inherited and can be modified or increased. After this research came out there was an explosion of technology designed to "train the brain" both to increase intelligence and to prevent the onset of dementia (Brown, et al. 2014).
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The message here is that a growth mindset is needed. What you think you can learn or do, is what you can learn or do. Children who better understand that effortful learning leads to intelligence and that intelligence levels can change due to these efforts have greater success in school. If students set performance goals for themselves they will set these goals at a level they feel comfortable that they can achieve, according to Carol Dweck. She goes on to demonstrate that children who set learning goals, instead of trying to validate their ability, are trying to acquire new knowledge and skills and therefore set higher goals (Brown, et al. 2014).
In summary, effortful learning is what changes the brain. Use of deliberate practice, memory cues, such as mnemonic devices and memory palaces, as well as a growth mindset lead to the best learning. As Brown et al. (2014) summarize in this chapter it is self-discipline, grit and persistence and not just genetic predisposition that can lead to expertise (Brown, et al. 2014) .
In summary, effortful learning is what changes the brain. Use of deliberate practice, memory cues, such as mnemonic devices and memory palaces, as well as a growth mindset lead to the best learning. As Brown et al. (2014) summarize in this chapter it is self-discipline, grit and persistence and not just genetic predisposition that can lead to expertise (Brown, et al. 2014) .
Chapter 8 Make it Stick
In chapter 8, Brown, Roediger and McDaniel (2014) summarize and give examples of the techniques taught in the book. They start with tips for students which include: practice retrieving, space out your retrieval practice and interleave the study of different problem types. They explain that with each of these techniques your intuition may tell you that it is not working, but if you stick with it you will see results. Elaboration or tying the information to things that you have already learned will also help. Some examples of this could include generating concept maps and summary sheets. Generation of answers to problems before you come to class will make it easier for you to know what you do not know and focus your learning in class. Reflecting on what you have learned will strengthen your skills because it is a combination of retrieval practice and elaboration. At the end of your practice, you need to calibrate your learning by looking to outside sources for feedback (Brown, et al. 2014) .
The study tips provided by Timothy Fellows in the text are valuable and are summarized below:
1. Do the reading BEFORE you come to class
2. Anticipate possible test questions and generate answers to the test questions
3. Ask and answer questions as you read through the material
4. Make sure you identify and understand all key words and definitions
5. Take any practice tests
6. Test yourself frequently on key concepts
7. Space your retrieval sessions an interleave them with study of other topics
1. Do the reading BEFORE you come to class
2. Anticipate possible test questions and generate answers to the test questions
3. Ask and answer questions as you read through the material
4. Make sure you identify and understand all key words and definitions
5. Take any practice tests
6. Test yourself frequently on key concepts
7. Space your retrieval sessions an interleave them with study of other topics
Show it is possible
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For teachers they advise that you start with teaching students how to learn so that they understand that the techniques that you choose are based on research results. Teach students how to study. Create desirable difficulties in the classroom with frequent quizzing, problem solving and group testing. They suggest that teachers should be very transparent about why they are doing what they are doing (Brown, et al. 2014).
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Carol Dweck -Mindset- the new psychology of success.
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Carol Dweck (2013) discusses her research on a growth mindset verses a fixed mindset. In a fixed mindset: talents and abilities are fixed, the students are less engaged, they are always concerned about how smart they are or appear to be, they show no signs of engagement when they make errors, they think that showing effort is a weakness and they tend to hold grudges longer (Happy & Well, 2013).
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In a growth mindset students acknowledge that everyone is not the same, but everyone can improve if they work at it. Students with a growth mindset care more about learning than grades, when they make mistakes they detect-process-correct these mistakes, and they realize that when they expend effort they are making new connections and learning (Happy & Well, 2013).
Train your brain
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So how does one end up with a growth or a fixed mindset and can it be changed? One theory is that children who are praised for their ability will value this ability and end up with a fixed mindset and children who are praised for their effort will value this effort and end up with more of a growth mindset. Students who are praised for their ability initially feel happy with this praise, but get easily frustrated and then disengage. Does this understanding of a growth mindset only apply to academics? No, it was also studied in terms of aggression. In a study done with 9th graders that included a control group, a group taught coping and social skills, and a group taught about the growth mindset aggression decreased the most in both the long and short term in the group taught about the growth mindset. Dweck finishes her discussion with a consideration of how this training can be used to decrease tensions in the Middle East (Happy & Well, 2013).
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How to use retrieval practice to improve learning
Retrieval practice
Agarwal, Roediger, McDaniel and McDermott (2013) discuss how retrieval should be used as an education method in the classroom and not as an assessment. They state that the struggle to recall improves our memory. The methods that we are used to using, such as rereading, get information into short term memory not long term memory where it is more durable. The more difficult it is for us to retrieve information from our memory the more learning results. Retrieval practice is not just a form of memorization, but also a means to develop understanding. Feedback is very important because it contributes to metacognition or the ability to know what one knows. Retrieval practice should be used in all grades levels and with all subjects. Clickers, whiteboards or colored index cards can be used to display student answers. This would allow the whole class to get involved instead of just one student. Retrieval practice also decreases test anxiety by about 67%. (Agarwal et al., 2013).
Link to article: http://www.retrievalpractice.org/
Link to article: http://www.retrievalpractice.org/
CONNECTIONS TO FIELD AND/OR DISCIPLINE
The growth verses fixed mindset is very important for students of medicine. Frequently, students will look at their evaluation and compare them with other students and argue each point. They want to know why this student got a 5/5 and they got a 4/5? These students have missed the point completely on the purpose of these evaluations. They are to provide feedback. Each person does their clinical rotations in a different setting and there are too many variables to make it feasible to have a valid comparison between scores. Students with a fixed mindset will consider themselves a success or a failure based on the number on the evaluation. Students with a growth mindset will look for trends in their evaluation. Keep the useful information that they can act on and forget about the rest.
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Provide feedback
In order to help promote a growth mindset, we will have to clearly define feedback for both the student and the preceptor. Feedback is meant to identify areas of improvement. Students are doing a clinical rotation to learn how to better take care of patients. They need to welcome feedback and realize that if they do not get any suggestions for improvement then they cannot grow. It is growth not the final grade that is most important. For academic knowledge growth: use frequent testing, encourage retrieval of previously studied material, and encourage students to link information together and draw connections. For the clinical care growth, encourage students to see evaluations as suggestions for improvement in specific areas and not a personal attack or a comment on their level of intelligence.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Take a break and then come back and take this quiz to see how much information you are able to retrieve.
REFERENCES
Agarwal, P., Roediger III, H., McDaniel, M. & McDermott, K. (2013) How to use retrieval practice to improve learning. St. Louis,
Missouri: Washington University [Article] Retrieved from: http://www.retrievalpractice.org/download/
Brown, P., Roediger III, H., & McDaniel M. (2014). Make it stick; The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA : The Belknap
Press of Harvard University.
Happy & Well (2013, October 20). Carol Dweck “mindset - the new psychology of success” at happiness & its causes 2013. [Video
file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/QGvR_0mNpWM
Missouri: Washington University [Article] Retrieved from: http://www.retrievalpractice.org/download/
Brown, P., Roediger III, H., & McDaniel M. (2014). Make it stick; The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA : The Belknap
Press of Harvard University.
Happy & Well (2013, October 20). Carol Dweck “mindset - the new psychology of success” at happiness & its causes 2013. [Video
file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/QGvR_0mNpWM
